Mississippi River Series - Part 3

Written By Memory Green

As noted in Part 2 of the Mississippi River Series, three individuals played a significant part in the early formal studies and management of the Mississippi River- Charles Ellet Jr., James B. Eads, and A.A. Humphreys. Collectively, the results of their studies, observations, and recommendations played a pivotal role in the management practices for the river, some of which prevail to this day. It will be noted that their observations and recommendations were not always in agreement but ultimately the behavior of the river dictated best management practices.

Preceding the reports of Ellet and Humphreys and the channel deepening project of Eads at South Pass, the House of Representatives authorized a survey of the Ohio and Mississippi Rivers “for the purpose of facilitating and ascertaining the most practical mode of improving the navigation of those rivers” in 1820. Led by Brig. Gen. S. Bernard and Lt. Col. Jos G. Totten, a reconnaissance of the rivers was made in the months of September, October, November, and December 1821. Their findings were summarized in a Report to the Board of Engineers on the Ohio and Mississippi Rivers, dated December 22, 1822. Among their observations and recommendations are the following: “The safety of navigation must depend mainly, however, upon the kind of boats employed, and upon the prudence and experience of the pilots.” “Constant watchfulness on the part of the pilot and abstaining from running at night are still indispensable conditions of a voyage without incident.” “Dykeing the river along its banks can only prevent these lateral currents, and time alone can produce this result.” (Note: The concern was that boats would be drawn out of the main channel by side currents.) “For the present, the security of navigation will depend, as has been said above, upon the kind of boats employed and the experience of the pilots, and upon the success of the attempts to diminish the number of snags.”

It should be noted that Totten was only the tenth individual to graduate from West Point. He was appointed to the first permanent Board of Engineers in 1816 and as Chief Engineer of the U S Corps of Engineers in 1838. He served in that position until his death in 1864, a total of 26 years. By far, Totten is the longest serving Chief of the Corps. Notably, he was a confounder of the National Academy of Sciences. Ellet (1810-1862), a graduate civil engineer, made major contributions to suspension bridge design and construction, canals and railroads, river management, economic analysis of transportation modes, and ramboats. Unfortunately, his life ended prematurely as the result of a non-fatal bullet wound during the First Battle of Memphis of the Civil War that became infected resulting in his death 15 days later. At the time, he was a commissioned Colonel in the Union Army and commanding a fleet of ramboats. While the focus of this section of the brief is Ellet’s contributions to the causes and controls of Mississippi River flooding, it is worth noting that in 1848 Ellet built the recordbreaking Wheeling suspension bridge over the Ohio River at Wheeling, West Virginia, with a span over 1,000 feet. In the same year, he erected the Niagara Falls Suspension Bridge, the first ever railway suspension bridge over the Niagara Gorge[2] with a 770-foot span. The website of the National Mississippi River Museum & Aquarium operated by the Dubuque County Historical Society provides the following assessment of Ellet’s contributions to the management of the Mississippi River.

The website of the National Mississippi River Museum & Aquarium operated by the Dubuque County Historical Society provides the following assessment of Ellet’s contributions to the management of the Mississippi River. Among his numerous accomplishments, Ellet surveyed the Ohio and the Mississippi Rivers in 1850 and 1851. These were not simply maps; they were blueprints for development and flood control. Time would prove the Mississippi survey to be a brilliant, intuitive report, which would be vital in the future plans of the Mississippi River Valley. As sensible as his plan sounds today, it was tremendously controversial at the time, and the Corps of Engineers violently rejected his plan for expansion and flood control on the Mississippi River. Despite the opposition to Ellet’s proposals during his lifetime, time allowed his plans to be not only accepted, but also to be acclaimed and effectively utilized. Virtually all of Ellet’s flood control recommendations are in place today. Ellet was a giant of his century whose vision has been implemented throughout the Mississippi River Valley. In 1850, Ellet was selected by the War Department to conduct a survey of the Mississippi River Delta, with recommendations for improvements. As a result of his survey, Ellet published the “Report of the overflows of the delta of the Mississippi,” that was prepared under the instructions of the War Department. The report examined the reasons for the inundation of the Mississippi Valley and advocated for the use of artificial reservoirs and improved levees to control flooding. What follows was taken directly from the report and summarizes Ellet’s analysis of the causes of river flooding… The greater frequency and more alarming character of the floods are attributed — Primarily , to the extension of cultivation, throughout the Mississippi valley, by which the evaporation is thought to be, in the aggregate, diminished, the drainage obviously increased, and the floods hurried forward more rapidly into the country below. Secondly, to the extension of the levees along the borders of the Mississippi, and of its tributaries and outlets, by means of which the water that was formerly allowed to spread over many thousand square miles of low lands, is becoming more and more confined to the immediate channel of the river, and is, therefore, compelled to rise higher and flow faster, until, under the increased power of the current, it may have time to excavate a wider and deeper trench to give vent to the increased volume which it conveys. Thirdly, to cut-offs, natural and artificial, by which the distance traversed by the stream is shortened, its slope and velocity increased, and the water consequently brought down more rapidly from the country above and precipitated more rapidly upon the country below. Fourthly, to the gradual progress of the delta into the sea, by which the course of the river, at its embouchure, is lengthened, the slope and velocity there are diminished, and the water consequently thrown back upon the lands above. It is shown that each of these causes is likely to be progressive, and that the future floods throughout the length and breadth of the delta, and along the great streams tributary to the Mississippi, are destined to rise higher and higher, as society spreads over the upper States, as population adjacent to the river increases, and the inundated low lands appreciate in value.

The greater frequency and more alarming character of the floods are attributed —

Primarily , to the extension of cultivation, throughout the Mississippi valley, by which the evaporation is thought to be, in the aggregate, diminished, the drainage obviously increased, and the floods hurried forward more rapidly into the country below.

Secondly, to the extension of the levees along the borders of the Mississippi, and of its tributaries and outlets, by means of which the water that was formerly allowed to spread over many thousand square miles of low lands, is becoming more and more confined to the immediate channel of the river, and is, therefore, compelled to rise higher and flow faster, until, under the increased power of the current, it may have time to excavate a wider and deeper trench to give vent to the increased volume which it conveys.

Thirdly, to cut-offs, natural and artificial, by which the distance traversed by the stream is shortened, its slope and velocity increased, and the water consequently brought down more rapidly from the country above and precipitated more rapidly upon the country below.

Fourthly, to the gradual progress of the delta into the sea, by which the course of the river, at its embouchure, is lengthened, the slope and velocity there are diminished, and the water consequently thrown back upon the lands above. It is shown that each of these causes is likely to be progressive, and that the future floods throughout the length and breadth of the delta, and along the great streams tributary to the Mississippi, are destined to rise higher and higher, as society spreads over the upper States, as population adjacent to the river increases, and the inundated low lands appreciate in value.

For the prevention of the increasing dangers growing out of these several cooperative causes, six distinct plans are discussed and advocated:

First — Better, higher and stronger levees in Lower Louisiana, and more efficient surveillance — a local measure, but one requiring State legislation, and official execution and discipline.

Second — The prevention of additional cut-offs; a restraint which may call for national legislation, or possibly judicial interference, to prohibit the States and individuals above from deluging the country below.

Third — The formation of an outlet of the greatest attainable capacity, from the Mississippi to the head of Lake Borgne, with a view, if possible, to convert it ultimately into the main channel of the river.

Fourthly — The enlargement of the Bayou Plaquemine, for the purpose of giving prompt relief to that part of the coast which now suffers most from the floods, viz : to the borders of the Mississippi from above Baton Rouge to New Orleans.

Fifth — The enlargement of the channel of the Atchafalaya, for the purpose of extending relief higher up the coast, and conveying to the sea, by an independent passage, the discharge from Red river and the Washita.

Sixth — The creation of great artificial reservoirs, and the increase of the capacity of the lakes on the distant tributaries, by placing dams across their outlets with apertures sufficient for their uniform discharge — so as to retain a portion of the water above until the floods have subsided below. It is proposed by this process to compensate, in some degree, for the loss of those natural reservoirs which have been and are yet to be destroyed by the levees; and at the same time, and by the same expedient, improve the navigation of all the great tributaries of the Mississippi, while affording relief to the suffering and injured population of the delta.

He noted that several of the plans “harmonize with each other and can be carried on simultaneously.” Ellet concluded the introduction of his report with the following admonition: “It will be shown, moreover, that they will all be needed, and that they must be adopted promptly and prosecuted vigorously, to afford efficient and timely protection ; and that, if adopted, and pressed forward boldly, they will ultimately secure the immediate object of Congress — the protection of the coasts of the Mississippi from overflow, and simultaneously the perfection of twenty thousand miles of precarious navigation, and the ultimate drainage and cultivation of fifteen or twenty millions of acres of uninhabitable swamps.” “Nothing will more forcibly impress the mind of the practical man with the inestimable value of the Mississippi and its tributaries, as a social, commercial, and political bond of this happy country, than the comprehensive study of the grand and beautiful problem of controlling their waters.” “The writer is fully aware of the distrust with which some of his views on this subject have been, and may yet be for reason, regarded. But he submits his plans to the calm consideration of an enlightened public, in the confident belief that every year, and each succeeding flood, will secure for them closer attention and additional strength.” In the case of one of his recommendations, that of enlarging Bayou Plaquemine to provide an outlet for flood waters, an alternative action was taken. Rather than enlarging the bayou to aid in flood control, access to the bayou was first blocked by a levee and later by a lock. The bayou was cleared and enlarged but for the purpose of vessel navigation. On a personal note, Ellet fathered two offspring, a girl- Mary Virginia and a boy- Charles Rivers. Notably, his son’s middle name clearly denoted Ellet’s fixation with rivers, particularly the Mississippi River. Charles Rivers served in the ram fleet of the Union Army and made notable contributions at the Battle of Vicksburg. At the early age of 19, Ellet was promoted to the rank of colonel, one of the youngest colonels in the Union Army at that time. He left the military in 1863 complaining of poor health. He died on October 29, 1863, while recuperating at his uncle’s home in Bunker Hill, Illinois.

James Buchanan Eads (1820-1887) was a self-educated civil engineer who, like Ellet, made notable contributions in several fields- salvage, bridge engineering, and river management. Regarding salvage, he devised and patented a diving bell that allowed him to recover the contents of vessels that had sunk in the Mississippi River. Subsequently, he designed special vessels that could raise the entire remains of sunken ships. One of his innovations that was never realized was a gigantic railway system intended for construction at the Isthmus of Tehuantepec. The purpose of this system was to transport ocean-going ships across the isthmus from the Gulf of Mexico to the Pacific Ocean; this attracted some interest but was never constructed. In effect, such a system would have precluded the need for the Panama Canal. Eads is probably best known for his design and construction of the Mississippi River steel arch bridge at St Louis that bears his name. Work on the bridge, a combined road and railway bridge, was begun in 1867 and completed in 1874. The bridge represented the first large scale use of structural steel. Like that of Roebling’s Brooklyn Bridge, the piers were constructed using pneumatic caissons. Demonstrating his versatility, as an initial undertaking, Eads designed and constructed seven City-class ironclads for the US Navy during the Civil War. Before the end of the war, he was responsible for the construction of more than 30 river ironclads. Eads’ humanity was evident during the Civil War at which time he wrote a check to the War Department for $1,000 to help homeless Confederates and Union sympathizers. After the war, he held a fair to raise money for the thousands of homeless refugees in St. Louis.

One of the major barriers to a flourishing trade market in New Orleans was the sediment bars that formed at the various Mississippi River passes. These bars prevented the passage of vessels whose drafts exceeded the depth of water at the entrance to a pass. This issue began to receive government attention as early as 1837, but little progress was made in developing an effective system to deepen and maintain the river passes. This problem continued into the 1870’s at which time Eads made a proposal to Congress to deepen the channel at Southwest Pass to a depth of 28 ft. The proposal was met with a great deal of skepticism, particularly by Colonel A. A. Humphreys who was Chief of the U S Corps of Engineers at the time. However, the need was great, and Eads presented a plan that was hard to turn down. Specifically, Eads proposed to undertake the project without advance payment or any payment for his work if his proposed system of jetties did not deepen and maintain the depth of channel of the pass to a depth of 30 ft. Given this circumstance, Congress approved the project but specified that it was to be implemented at South Pass rather than Southwest Pass. As somewhat of a concession to Eads, Congress agreed to pay him given amounts as the pass reached certain depths. If the design depth of 30 ft was achieved, Eads would be paid 4.25 million dollars (almost 120 million in 2025 dollars!). Eads design assumption was that by narrowing the channel of the pass using jetties, the velocity of the river would increase thereby scouring the deposited sediments and deepening the pass. The jetty walls consisted of mattresses of interwoven young willow trees. Over time, sediment gradually filled to crevices in the mattresses thus forming a dike-like structure. The project, initiated in 1874, was completed in 1879 and was successful in achieving the design depth of 30 ft. This success propelled the port of New Orleans from the ninth to the second most active port. Because of this significant accomplishment, the port located at South Pass was named after Eads. His design of the jetties at South Pass was designated as a National Historic Civil Engineering Landmark by the American Society of Civil Engineers in 1982.

Andrew Atkinson Humphreys (1810-1882) was raised in a Navy family but chose to attend West Point and pursue a career in the Army. He graduated with a civil engineering degree in 1831and immediately joined the Second Artillery Regiment. After several years, his regiment was deployed to Florida in 1835 as part of the US forces engaged in the 2nd Seminole War. In 1836, Humphreys contracted a severe illness, likely yellow fever, forcing him to leave the army only to return several years later. At the outset of his second hitch in 1838, Humphreys was assigned to the newly formed Army Corps of Topographical Engineers. This branch of the Army was used for “mapping and the design and construction of federal civil works such as lighthouses, coastal fortifications, and navigation routes.” It was merged with US Army Corps of Engineers on March 31, 1863. Prior to 1850, at which time he was given responsibility for conducting an extensive survey of the lower Mississippi River, Humphreys participated “on assignments in Chicago, New York, and Washington, D.C., conducting surveys and overseeing harbor improvements and bridge building.” As a result of his survey of the Mississippi River, with the assistance of Lieutenant Henry L. Abbot (1831- 1927), a 623-page report was published in 1861. Entitled Report upon the Physics and Hydraulics of the Mississippi River, it has been judged to be “the most thorough analyses of the Mississippi River ever completed.” The report “won the respect of engineers around the world and decidedly influenced the development of river engineering in America.” If you noted that the period between the initiation of the study and the publication spanned 10 years, you might question why. The reason is spelled out by Humphreys in the report as follows: “While engaged in the field, in the summer of 1851, I was suddenly prostrated by sickness, which obliged me early in the following year to relinquish the charge of the work to Lieutenant Colonel Long, topographical engineers”. Soon after, the field operations were entirely suspended until the fall of 1857 at which time the surveys and investigations were restarted under Humphreys’ direction. During the period, 1851-57, still unfit to resume the duties required by the Mississippi River study, Humphreys requested and received approval to visit Europe to study its delta rivers, specifically the Rhone, the Po, the Vistula, and the Rhine. Following his return from Europe, Humphreys directed the Pacific Railway Surveys (1853– 57), the single purpose of which was “to identify the most practicable and economical route from the Mississippi River to the Pacific Ocean.” In essence, the route for the first transcontinental railroad. The findings of the survey were published in a 13-volume report (1855-61).

The authors employed both mathematical principles and empirical data in an attempt to model and predict the flow of the Mississippi River. Their report included numerous tabulations of both empirical data and analytical results. Considering the lack of automated computational means at the time, it is apparent that considerable time was spent making calculations. In assessing these calculations, I would question the precision to which the data and the results were reported. Of course, the ultimate objective of the study was to develop effective tactics and strategies for the management of the river, particularly in controlling flooding events and facilitating navigation. In the case of flooding, Humphreys and Abbot’s principal recommendation was the construction and maintenance of levees to the exclusion of reservoirs or outlets as proposed by Ellet. Although they did suggest the possibility of ”An outlet near Lake Providence may be advisable.” Their concern at that location was that “the levees must be constructed to enormous height to retrain the floods.” Relative to the employment of outlets to control flooding, the authors’ concern was that outlets might lead to a rerouting of the river. As we are now aware, the flood control on the river is now achieved by a balance of levees and outlets- the Bonnet Carre Spillway and the Morganza Spillway. Further, the Old River Control Structure controls the portion of the flow in the Mississippi River diverted to the Atchafalaya River. That outlet is critical to maintaining the proper balance of flow between the Mississippi and Atchafalaya Rivers. In their recommendations, the authors clearly and unequivocally stated their position in this way: “An organized levee system must be depended upon for protection against floods in the Mississippi valley.” They added: “The preceding discussion of the different plans of protection has been so elaborate and the conclusions have been so well established, that little remains to be said under the head of recommendations.” To implement such a comprehensive plan, the authors provided guidance on the “Proper heights to be given to the levees;” “Cross-section and mode of construction of the levee;” and “Approximate estimate of the cost of a perfected levee system.” In the case of cost, the authors estimated” the total cost of protecting the alluvial region against inundation provided there were no levees in existence would be about twenty-six million dollars.” Given that some levees existed at the time, the estimated cost to construct needed additional levees and upgrade existing levees was sixteen million dollars. In today’s dollars, 26 million and 16 million dollars would correspond to over a billion dollars and 622 million dollars, respectively. Relative to navigation, the authors’ principal recommendations were focused on straightening and deepening the river channel. Straightening would not only decrease travel distances but promote higher river velocities, increased sediment flow, and increased river depth. Upon of completion of the report and having not seen combat for over 25 years, Humphreys nevertheless demonstrated his leadership skills and bravery during the Civil War, particularly during the Battle of Gettysburg where he earned the moniker “fighting fool of Gettysburg.” At war’s end, Humphreys was designated “the great soldier of the Army of the Potomac” by Charles Dana, Assistant Secretary of War. As a result of his distinction in battle and earlier laudable civilian endeavors, in 1866 President Ulysses S. Grant selected Humphreys to serve as chief of the Corps of Engineers. Humphreys served in that position for 13 years before retiring in 1879. It was during his term as Chief of the Corps of Engineers that Humphreys clashed with Eads concerning two major Mississippi River projects- what became known as the Eads bridge at St. Louis and the South Pass jetties. In the case of the bridge, Humphreys was concerned that the bridge would be an impediment to navigation and insisted that Eads build a canal to allow vessels to bypass the bridge. Based on an appeal to President Grant, Eads was allowed to construct the bridge as designed. In the case of the South Pass jetties, Humphreys was skeptical that construction of the jetties would result in deepening the pass. His objection might have prevented the project had not Eads come up with an appealing “no fault” plan that convinced Congress to take a chance. In 1883, Humphreys passed away in Washington, DC, at the age of 73. In advance of his death, Humphreys was inducted as a Fellow in the American Academy of Arts and Sciences and was an original incorporator of the National Academy of Sciences.

Memory Green https://www.maritimemuseumlouisiana.org
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Mississippi River Series- Part 2